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| There is a debate on the origins of the word ''Ahimsa'', and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the root word may be ''han'' which means kill, which leads to the interpretation that ''ahimsa'' means ''do not kill''. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the proper root word is ''hiṃs'' and the Sanskrit verb ''hinasti'', which leads to the interpretation that ''ahimsa'' means ''do not injure'', or ''do not hurt''. Wackernagel-Debrunner (and Sarkar) concur with the latter explanation.<ref name=houben>Henk Bodewitz (in Jan E. M. Houben, Karel Rijk van Kooij, Eds.), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History, ISBN 978-9004113442, Brill Academic Pub (June 1999), see Chapter 2</ref><ref name="XXII-XLVII 1986, p. 11-12">Walli pp. XXII-XLVII; Borman, William: ''Gandhi and Non-Violence'', Albany 1986, p. 11-12.</ref> | | There is a debate on the origins of the word ''Ahimsa'', and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the root word may be ''han'' which means kill, which leads to the interpretation that ''ahimsa'' means ''do not kill''. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the proper root word is ''hiṃs'' and the Sanskrit verb ''hinasti'', which leads to the interpretation that ''ahimsa'' means ''do not injure'', or ''do not hurt''. Wackernagel-Debrunner (and Sarkar) concur with the latter explanation.<ref name=houben>Henk Bodewitz (in Jan E. M. Houben, Karel Rijk van Kooij, Eds.), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History, ISBN 978-9004113442, Brill Academic Pub (June 1999), see Chapter 2</ref><ref name="XXII-XLVII 1986, p. 11-12">Walli pp. XXII-XLVII; Borman, William: ''Gandhi and Non-Violence'', Albany 1986, p. 11-12.</ref> |
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| ==Hinduism== | | ==History== |
| | | The concept of ahimsa first arose as an ethical precept in the indigenous tantric tradition of ancient India. Over time, the concept of ahimsa made its way into Vedic texts with varying interpretations. When the philosopher [[:wikipedia:Patanjali]] (circa 200-400BCE) systematized tantra into what is popularly known as ''Aśt́áuṋga Yoga'' (eight-limbed yoga) or ''Rája Yoga'' (the king of yogas), ahimsa was the first principle of his first element of yoga (Yama).<ref>Patañjali: ''Yoga Sutras'', Sadhana Pada 30.</ref> |
| ===Ancient Vedic Texts===
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| Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolves in Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Walli, Koshelya: ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'', Varanasi 1974, p. 113-145.</ref> The oldest scripts, dated to be before 1000 BC, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, but do not emphasize it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasized, ultimately Ahimsa becomes the concept that describes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BC). For example, one passage in the oldest Rig Veda reads, "do not harm anything";<ref>''The Hindu history'' By Akshoy Kumar Mazumdar</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 BC and 600 BC, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE</ref>
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| The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury" without a moral connotation.<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The Ahimsa doctrine is a late development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>
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| Bowker claims the word scarcely appears in the principal Upanishads.<ref>John Bowker, ''Problems of suffering in religions of the world.'' Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233.</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word ''Ahimsa'' in Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>Kaneda, T. (2008). Shanti, peacefulness of mind. C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, pages 171-192, ISBN 978-0805856736, Taylor & Francis</ref> Other scholars<ref name=arapura>John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, ISBN 978-8120819375; see Chapter 20, pages 392-417</ref><ref>Izawa, A. (2008). Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual. Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, 12, 78</ref> suggest ''Ahimsa'' as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, became an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.
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| The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[metempsychosis]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.</ref> A few scholars are of the opinion that this passage was a concession to growing influence of [[Shramana|shramanic]] culture, primarily Jainism, on the Brahmanical religion.<ref>Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, ''Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges.'' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, page 315.</ref><ref>Bal Gangadhar Tilak, “Bombay Samachar”. Mumbai:10 Dec, 1904</ref></cite>
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| Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Arjavam (sincerity), [[Dāna|Danam]] (charity), [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|Tapo]] (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, ISBN 81-7933-159-9, see page 11-14</ref>
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| The Sandilya [[Upanishad]] lists ten forbearances: '''Ahimsa''', Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava,Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara and Saucha.<ref>Swami, P. (2000). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads: SZ (Vol. 3). Sarup & Sons; see pages 630-631</ref><ref>Ballantyne, J. R., & Yogīndra, S. (1850). A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the Vedánta-sára. Presbyterian mission press.</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.
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| ===The Epics===
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| The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Mahaprasthanika Parva]] has the verse:<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm Mahabharata 13.117.37-38]</ref>
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| <blockquote><poem>
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| अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मस तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः | अहिंसा परमं दानम अहिंसा परमस तपः | अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञस तथाहिस्मा परं बलम | अहिंसा परमं मित्रम अहिंसा परमं सुखम | अहिंसा परमं सत्यम अहिंसा परमं शरुतम ||
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| </poem></blockquote>
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| The above passage from Mahabharata emphasizes the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and literally means: Ahimsa is the highest [[virtue]], Ahimsa is the highest self-control, Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best suffering, Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength, Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness, Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In Perspectives on Nonviolence (pp. 168-177). Springer New York.</ref><ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/pdf_downloads/what_is_hinduism/Sec6/WIH_Sec6_Chapter45.pdf Ahimsa: To do no harm] Subramuniyaswami, What is Hinduism?, Chapter 45, Pages 359-361</ref> Some other examples where the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' are discussed include [[Adi Parva]], [[Vana Parva]] and [[Anushasana Parva]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defense and the [[Just war theory|theories of just war]]. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref name=fischer1954/>
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| ===Self-defense, criminal law, and war===
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| The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defense and theories of proportionate punishment.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996>Klaus K. Klostermaier (1996), in Harvey Leonard Dyck and Peter Brock (Ed), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective, see ''Chapter on Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism'', ISBN 978-0802007773, University of Toronto Press, pages 230-234</ref> [[Arthashastra]] discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>Paul F. Robinson (2003), Just War in Comparative Perspective, ISBN 0-7546-3587-2, Ashgate Publishing, see pages 114-125</ref><ref>Coates, B. E. (2008). Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa. Comparative Strategy, 27(2), pages 133-147</ref>
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| ;War
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| The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction.<ref>Subedi, S. P. (2003). The Concept in Hinduism of ‘Just War’. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 8(2), pages 339-361</ref> All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to the opponent; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>
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| ;Self-defense
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| In matters of self-defense, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–101.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 91–93.</ref>
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| Alternate theories of self-defense, inspired by Ahimsa, build principles similar to theories of just war. [[Aikido]], pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such principles of self-defense. [[Morihei Ueshiba]], the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.<ref>[http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts] Nebojša Vasic, University of Zenica (2011); Sport SPA Vol. 8, Issue 2: 47-51; see page 46, 2nd column</ref> According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error or fear, attack other persons or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the aggression of the attacker, and avoid the conflict. The best defense is one where the victim is protected, as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under Ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker.<ref>[http://aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf SOCIAL CONFLICT, AGGRESSION, AND THE BODY IN EURO-AMERICAN AND ASIAN SOCIAL THOUGHT] Donald Levine, University of Chicago (2004)</ref><ref>Ueshiba, Kisshōmaru (2004), ''The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques'', Kodansha International, ISBN 4-7700-2945-4</ref>
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| ;Criminal law
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| Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–99.</ref>
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| Other scholars<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/> conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional and not cruel.
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| ;Pacifism
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| There is no universal consensus on [[pacifism]] among Hindu scholars of modern times. The conflict between pacifistic interpretations of Ahimsa and the theories of [[just war]] prescribed by the Gita has been resolved by some scholars such as [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], as being an allegory,<ref>Gandhi, Mohandas K., ''The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi'' Berkeley Hills Books, Berkeley 2000</ref> wherein the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna, the war is within each human being, where man's higher impulses struggle against his own evil impulses.<ref name=fischer1954>Fischer, Louis: ''Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World'' Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15–16</ref>
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| ===Non-human life===
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| The Hindu precept of 'cause no injury' applies to animals and all life forms. This precept isn’t found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 BC and 400 AD.<ref name=chapple16>Christopher Chapple (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1498-1, pages 16-17</ref><ref>W Norman Brown (February 1964), [http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf ‘‘The sanctity of the cow in Hinduism’’], The Economic Weekly, pages 245-255</ref> In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of Ahimsa to non-human life.<ref>D.N. Jha (2002), ‘‘The Myth of the Holy Cow’’, ISBN 1859846769, Verso</ref><ref>Steven Rosen (2004), Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights, ISBN 1-59056-066-3, pages 19-39</ref>
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| Hindu scriptures, dated to between 5th century and 1st century BC, while discussing human diet, initially suggest ‘‘kosher’’ meat may be eaten, evolving it with the suggestion that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, then that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots and fruits alone.<ref name=chapple16/><ref>[[Baudhayana]] Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; [[Apastamba]] Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.</ref>
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| Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against ‘‘dharma’’ (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics<ref>Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5), 3.199.19-29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-8:19</ref> shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa precept, given the constraints of life and human needs.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 592–593.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 13.115.59–60; 13.116.15–18.</ref> The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. [[Sushruta Samhita]], a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women,<ref>Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna (1907), An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Volume I, Part 2; see Chapter starting on page 469; for discussion on meats and fishes, see page 480 and onwards</ref><ref>Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.</ref> and the [[Charaka Samhita]] describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.<ref>Sutrasthana 27.87.</ref>
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| Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus.<ref>Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17; Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).</ref> Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen pp. 34–36.</ref><ref>The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.</ref><ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm Mahabharata 12.260] (12.260 is 12.268 according to another count); 13.115–116; 14.28.</ref> In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm Mahabharata 3.199] (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count).</ref>
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| Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 39–43.</ref><ref>Alsdorf p. 589-590; Schmidt pp. 634–635, 640–643; Tähtinen pp. 41–42.</ref>
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| The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Schmidt pp. 637–639; Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>Rod Preece, Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, ISBN 978-0-7748-0725-8, University of British Columbia Press, pages 212-217</ref> Scholars<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ‘’Perspectives on Nonviolence’’ (pages 168-177). Springer New York</ref><ref>Van Horn, G. (2006). Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article. Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, 10(1), 5-39</ref> claim the principles of ecological non-violence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.
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| The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]]'' written between 200 BC and 400 AD, and sometimes called the Tamil [[Veda]], is one of the most cherished classics on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. Tirukkuṛaḷ dedicates Chapter 32 and 33 of Book 1 to the virtue of Ahimsa. ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' suggests that Ahimsa applies to all life forms.<ref>[http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by Rev G.U. Pope, Rev W.H. Drew, Rev John Lazarus, and Mr F W Ellis (1886), WH Allen & Company; see pages 40-41, verses 311-330</ref><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm Tirukkuṛaḷ] see Chapter 32 and 33, Book 1</ref><ref>[http://www.worldcat.org/title/tirukkural-tirukkural/oclc/777453934?referer=di&ht=edition Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by V.V.R. Aiyar, Tirupparaithurai : Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam (1998)</ref>
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| ===Modern times===
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| [[File:Portrait Gandhi.jpg|thumb|[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Gandhi]] promoted the principle of Ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics.]]
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| In modern Hinduism slaughter according to the rituals permitted in the Vedic scriptures has become less common, though, the world's largest animal sacrifice occurs at Gadhimai ([[Nepal]]), a Hindu festival which takes place every 5 years.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/24/hindu-sacrifice-gadhimai-festival-nepal Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins]</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>''Religious Vegetarianism'', ed. [[Kerry S. Walters]] and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 50-52.</ref> [[Ramana Maharshi]],<ref>[http://www.beasyouare.info/beasyouare.html Ramana Maharishi: ''Be as you are'']. Beasyouare.info. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> [[Swami Sivananda]],<ref>[http://www.dlshq.org/teachings/ahimsa.htm Swami Sivananda: ''Bliss Divine'', p. 3-8]. Dlshq.org (2005-12-11). Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]]<ref>''Religious Vegetarianism'' p. 56-60.</ref> and in the present time Vijaypal Baghel emphasized the importance of Ahimsa.
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| [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] promoted the principle of Ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics ([[Swaraj]]).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 116–124.</ref> His non-violent resistance movement [[satyagraha]] had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries and influenced the leaders of various [[civil and political rights]] movements such as [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] In Gandhi’s thought, Ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury, but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with Ahimsa.<ref name="XXII-XLVII 1986, p. 11-12"/> Gandhi believed Ahimsa to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find satya, "Divine Truth".<ref>Jackson pp.39-54. Religion East & West. 2008.</ref> [[Sri Aurobindo]] criticized the Gandhian concept of Ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 115–116.</ref> Sri Aurobindo also indicated that Gandhi's Ahimsa led to partition of India as it blocked the forceful action that the Indian people were engaged in in the 1920s and 30s, which caused delay in independence, allowing other forces to take root, including those who wanted India divided.
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| A thorough historical and philosophical study of Ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of [[Albert Schweitzer]]'s principle of "reverence for life". Schweitzer criticized Indian philosophical and religious traditions for having conceived Ahimsa as the negative principle of avoiding violence instead of emphasizing the importance of positive action (helping injured beings).<ref>Schweitzer, Albert: ''Indian Thought and its Development'', London 1956, p. 80-84, 100–104, 110–112, 198–200, 223–225, 229–230.</ref>
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| ===Yoga===
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| Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of [[Patañjali]]’s "classical" Yoga ([[Raja Yoga]]). It is one of the five [[Yamas]] (restraints) which make up the code of conduct, the first of the eight limbs of which this path consists.<ref>Patañjali: ''Yoga Sutras'', Sadhana Pada 30.</ref> In the schools of [[Bhakti Yoga]], the devotees who worship [[Vishnu]] or Krishna are particularly keen on Ahimsa.<ref>Tähtinen p. 87.</ref> Another [[Bhakti Yoga]] school, [[Radha Soami Satsang Beas]] observes vegetarianism and moral living as aspects of "Ahimsa."
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| Ahimsa is also an obligation in [[Hatha Yoga]] according to the classic manual [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]] (1.1.17). But it is important to note that Ahmisa as used here is distinct from that in Jainism. Yagnas and mantras are prescribed for attaining glory in Vedas.
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| ==Jainism== | | ==Jainism== |